political fallout the failure of emergency management at chernobyl political fallout the failure of emergency management at chernobyl

On April 26, 1986, there was an explosion at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the republic of Ukraine. See Kushnir, Valentina Shevchenko.. 1. Furthermore, they state that the maximum radiation in Pripiat was 14 microroentgens an hour on the morning of the 26thwhen in fact there were places in the city where radiation levels were hundreds of times higher. 3,39.Google Scholar, 70. 68. See, for instance, Shcherbak, Chernobyl'. 31. The RBMK's large size and relatively high complexity increased its construction costs, but it enjoyed the advantage of decreased fuel costs because it could run on low-enriched uranium, thanks to its superior neutron economy. The Chernobyl accident led to many political consequences along with the health and environmental issues. Every, U.S.-Soviet Relations in the Era Of Dtente, In a recent interview, Paul Warnke, the newly appointed head of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, responded as follows to the question of how the United States ought to react to indications. In contrast, the RBMK uses graphite (a form of carbon) as the moderator and water as the coolant. Render date: 2023-03-04T05:38:26.289Z Valentina Shevchenko has made contradictory statements to this effect. 24. While management may fail, it is often the employees--the unsung women and men of the organization--who meet the challenge and help . Women yet to smash glass ceiling in Australian diplomacy and security, Osaka G20: finding the right beat for hard conversation, Future Frigates and the wisdom of large surface ships, The first was at Three Mile Island, in the US, in 1979. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. The Emmy-winning HBO mini-series "Chernobyl," which is a dramatized account of the 1986 nuclear power plant disaster, has rekindled conversation about the accident, its subsequent cleanup and the long-term impacts on people living near the power plant. 3 The international response to Chernobyl was delayed because President Mikhail Gorbachev chose to defer the declaration of emergency for political reasons. See Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. In its report in 1986 it supported the theory of operator error, "the catastrophic accident was caused by gross violations of operating rules and regulations" (INSAG safety report). Medvedev, , The Legacy of Chernobyl, 4952.Google Scholar. Medvedev, , The Truth about Chernobyl, 2528.Google Scholar, 25. The plant managers decided to take advantage of this to conduct a safety test an experiment to see whether, if there was a failure in the external power grid immediately after shut down, the reactors generators (then spinning down) could produce sufficient power to control the reactor during the time it would take for the reactors emergency generators to cut in (around one minute). 34, ark. Smirnova, A. S., ed., Trevozhnye dni i nochi Chernobylia: Sbornik rasskazov ivospominanii (Kiev, 2003), 34.Google Scholar. Gnatiuk, Neobkhodimosf MPVO-GO, 19. Brown, Kate, Plutopia:Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (Oxford, 2013).Google Scholar For an account based on rumors about the disasters that circulated prior to Chernobyl', see Large industrial accidents, building collapses, high-rise fires, airliner crashes, ship sinkings, and acts of terrorism are frequently classified as human-caused disasters. Altunin, A. T., Formirovaniia grazhdanskoi oborony v bor'be s stikhiinymi bedstviiami (Moscow, 1976).Google Scholar, 17. 2-3 (KGB report on conditions around ChNPP, April 26,1986); Povidomlennia KDB URSR do KDB SRSR pro vybukh 4-ho enerhobloka Chornobyl's'koi AES. 2-4 (KGB report on conditions around ChNPP, April 26,1986). This was The plant managers failed to obtain safety authorisation for this test. D'iachenko, , Chernobylskaia katastrofa, 28.Google Scholar, 11. The Chernobyl power plant in Ukraine (then part of the Soviet Union) comprised four RBMK reactors, a design unique to the Soviet Union. Many accounts of the Chernobyl disaster erroneously state that Shcherbina made the final decision to evacuate on the evening of April 26, which is reflective of the extraordinary confusion that reigned at the time. The Chernobyl Accident was a nuclear reactor accident that occurred on Apr 26, 1986 in Ukraine. Firstly, the accident prompted nuclear energy policy to arise as a significant public issue. The consequences of this accident exceed Boris Ivanov, Chernobyl', Voennye znaniia 40, no. The costs to public health are extensively discussed, but the wider political consequences are also still felt. Marples, David R., Chernobyl and Nuclear Power in the USSR (Toronto, 1986), 111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 9. Some analysts claimed that the USSR possessed a massive civil defense program. 1, spr. I visited this shelter in June 2010 along with the shelter at ChNPP. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. accident botley road curdridge; prince escalus speech analysis; official twitter video; inr18650 samsung 15m datasheet; blank ring settings wholesale Saunders, George (New York, 1979).Google Scholar, 19. Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl, 54. UC San Francisco's Lydia Zablotska, MD, PhD, grew up in Ukraine, trained as physician . la., Ignatenko, E. I., Kovalenko, A. P., and Troitskii, S. N., Chernobyl': Sobytiia i uroki. 2. Vladimirov, V. et al., Of MPVO k grazhdanskoi zashchite: Stranitsy iz istorii MPVOGO-PSChS sub'ektov Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, 2004).Google Scholar Furthermore, several Russian scholars have touched on the role of Soviet civil defense at Chernobyl', particularly writer and Chernobyl liquidator Anatolii D'iachenko. Says Toll May Pass 2,000, New York Times, April 30,1986, A10. Despite the publication of numerous works about the accident, the number of studies derived from archival documents has, to date, remained limited. Blog november 2025 calendar Uncategorized political fallout the failure of emergency management at chernobyl. Ivanov, Boris, Chernobyl', Voennye znaniia 1. View all Google Scholar citations 66. Saunders, George (New York, 1979).Google Scholar, 19. 14, no. This was the only catastrophic nuclear accident that has occurred. 67. A t 1.23am on 26 April 1986, reactor no 4 of the Chernobyl nuclear plant blew up, spewing immense amounts of radioactive material into the air. Medvedev, The Truth about Chernobyl, 18587. 81. Medvedev, Zhores A., Nuclear Disaster in the Urals, trans. Reflecting growing popular disillusionment with the Soviet project, glasnost-era Soviet writers often faulted the Soviet system for endangering its citizens with an intrinsically dangerous technology. most significant fallout occurred across western Soviet Russia, Belarus and Ukraine; and the nearby settlements of Chornobyl and Pripyat (Clark and Smith, 1988). A., Opyt likvidatsii posledstviiChernobylskoi katastrofy (Moscow, 2004);Google Scholar and 49. File photo - A wolf stands in a field in the 18 mile exclusion zone around the . 28. Vladimirov, V. et al., Of MPVO k grazhdanskoi zashchite: Stranitsy iz istorii MPVOGO-PSChS sub'ektov Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, 2004).Google Scholar Furthermore, several Russian scholars have touched on the role of Soviet civil defense at Chernobyl', particularly writer and Chernobyl liquidator Anatolii D'iachenko. It's significant to wait for the representative and beneficial books to read. 32, spr. 30. The Chernobyl accident was the most severe in the history of the world nuclear industry. 2558, ark. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl', 400.Google Scholar, 57. The United States Environmental Protection Agency and other federal agencies are constantly preparing for disastrous events, including event involving nuclear and radiological materials. 25, spr. Under the auspices of the UN Chernobyl Forum, WHO carried out its own independent health assessment of the accident. Nuclear Disaster: A Spreading Cloud and an Aid Appeal; U.P.I. In various ways the accident contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union. Reports prepared for the party attest to many Soviet citizens belief in accounts of the disaster like that circulated by UPI. The folly of large surface ships and primacy of submarines is not clear-cut. It maintains that the radiological conditions in Pripiat' did not objectively require evacuation on April 26, and it ignores the fact that GO officers protested the delay. 9842741222, 9942641222, 9842724434 chinamanpaversscc@gmail.com. "useRatesEcommerce": false 60. 25, spr. Krutskikh, , Memuary, 410.Google Scholar, 75. Bomb Shelters in the USSR, 1945-1962, Grazhdanskaia oborona: Slozhnyi etap razvitiia, Neobkhodimost MPVO-GO: Podtverdilo vremia, Formirovaniia grazhdanskoi oborony v bor'be s stikhiinymi bedstviiami, Russians, Too, Joke Sadly on Atom-War Survival, Plutopia:Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters, When Safe Enough Is Not Good Enough: Organizing Safety at Chernobyl, Likvidatsiia posledstvii radioaktivnogo zarazheniia, Opyt likvidatsii Chernobyl skoi katastrofy, Trevozhnye dni i nochi Chernobylia: Sbornik rasskazov ivospominanii, Chernobyl': Sobytiia i uroki. 20 January 2017. 78. It affected large areas of the former Soviet Union and even parts of western Europe. 2 (February 1988): 23.Google Scholar, 56. On the May 6 news conference, see The first lesson of Three Mile Island was the most basic - that emergency planning was needed. Gnatiuk, Iu., Neobkhodimost MPVO-GO: Podtverdilo vremia, Grazhdanskaiazashchita 2 (Spring 2012): 328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 14. The threat of global climate change has pushed governments around the world to consider alternative energy sources, including nuclear energy. Chernobyl was not a natural disaster; it was a man-made one. 2995,11.12-13 (report to Ukrainian CP Central Committee on Chernobyl liquidation effort, June 12,1986). 34-38 (circular on Chernobyl accident for party propagandists, May 8,1986). Not long after midnight on April 26, 1986, the world's worst nuclear power accident began. Voprosy i otvety, Opyt likvidatsii Chernobylskoi katastrofy, Iz segodniav zavtra: Mysli vslukh Chernobyl i bezopasnost, Chornobil's'ka trahediia iak argument perebudovi, Perebudova: Zadum i rezul'taty v Ukrainy do10-richchia protoloshennia kursu na reformy, At Moscow News Session: Brief and Not to Point, TheSocial Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster. 2337, ark. The Chernobyl accident caused serious contamination of large areas in Norway in 1986. } 11A (1988), spr. Ironically, the disaster struck during a scheduled safety test. 34, ark. See, for example, Thirty-three years ago, on April 26, 1986, a series of explosions destroyed Chernobyl's reactor No. Stikhi, ocherki, rasskazy, otryvki iz romanov ipovestei, interv'iu (Kiev, 1988);Google Scholar See From the 25-year-old with his finger on the wrong button to the grizzled Communist Party apparatchik who . 1012 Words5 Pages. From the Water Wheel to the Atomic Engine explored the political, economic, and cultural significance of an incipient atomic century and touted the nearly limitless applications of the power of the atom in agriculture, medicine and industry. 43. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl', 400.Google Scholar, 57. D'iachenko, , Opyt likvidatsii Chernobyl skoi katastrofy, 3940.Google Scholar, 35. hasContentIssue true, Copyright Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. Political Fallout: The Failure of Emergency Management at Chernobyl' Authors: Edward Geist Abstract Ever since the accident that destroyed unit 4 of the Chernobyl' Nuclear Power Plant on April. 1, spr. 25, sp. Medvedev, , The Legacy of Chernobyl, 4952.Google Scholar. Schmid, Sonja, When Safe Enough Is Not Good Enough: Organizing Safety at Chernobyl, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Geist, Edward, Was There a Real Mineshaft Gap'? 62. CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 8. [1-4] A total of about 30 people, including operators and firemen, died as a result of direct exposure to radiation. The RBMKs designers were well aware of this potential safety issue and prepared detailed instructions for reactor operators on how to avoid such an accident. 23. Tsentral'nyi Komitet Kompartii Ukrainy-Informatsiia, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. On 2526 April 1986 Chernobyls Unit 4 reactor was scheduled for a routine shut down. Valentina Shevchenko has made contradictory statements to this effect. For one thing, it completely ignores the critical mobilisational dimension of politics during Vypiska iz Norm radiatsionnoi bezopasnosti NRB-76,' TsDAHO, f. 1, op. Rossiter, Evelyn (New York, 1991), 1819.Google Scholar, 10. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl, 399.Google ScholarPubMed, 47. 26 kvitnia 1986r., DA SBU, f. 64 op. For a western analysis of the interplay between antinuclear and anti-Soviet popular sentiments following Chernobyl', see 4, no. 3 (March 1988): 38. Stikhi, ocherki, rasskazy, otryvki iz romanov ipovestei, interv'iu, Reportazh iz Chernobylia: Zapiski ochevidtsev.Kommentarii. 32, spr. 65. This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. Spravka, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. See, for example, 28 kvitnia 1986r., DA SBU, f. 16, op. Access to the Jupiter plant is still restricted by the Ukrainian security services. The Chernobyl power plant in Ukraine (then part of the Soviet Union) comprised four "RBMK" reactors, a design unique to the Soviet Union. For one such scholarly account, see See TsDAHO, f. 1, op. Google ScholarPubMed. After the explosion of unit 4, the Soviet government rushed to lay blame for the catastrophe on a handful of mistakes made by expendable, easily scapegoated individuals and to defuse charges that the Soviet state could be held responsible. Gorbachev, M. S., Sobranie sochinenii, vol. Smirnova, A. S., ed., Trevozhnye dni i nochi Chernobylia: Sbornik rasskazov ivospominanii (Kiev, 2003), 34.Google Scholar. 2337, ark. Canadian expert Dr. David Marples's work The Soviet Impact of the Cher- nobyl Disaster 12 provides an excellent description of the explosion and its social consequences. Medvedev, , The Truth about Chernobyl, 8083.Google Scholar, 34. 3,39. 2979,11.8-12 (report on Ukrainian citizens reactions to M. S. Gorbachev's May 14,1986, televised address). 29. On April 26, 1986, a sudden surge of power during a reactor systems test destroyed Unit 4 of the nuclear power station at Chernobyl, Ukraine, in the former Soviet Union. A., Opyt likvidatsii posledstviiChernobylskoi katastrofy (Moscow, 2004);Google Scholar and 39, no. 48. The accident and the fire that followed released massive amounts of radioactive material into the environment. Cambridge Journals publishes over 250 peer-reviewed academic journals across a wide range of subject areas, in print and online. Taubman, Phillip, At Moscow News Session: Brief and Not to Point, New York Times, May 7, 1986, A19.Google Scholar For the text of Gorbachev's May 14 address, see Vystuplenie M. S. Gorbacheva po sovetskomu televideniiu, Pravda, May 15,1986,1. Drawing on declassified archival documents from Ukrainian archives and memoir literature, I explore the political and institutional logic that prevented the USSR from acting appropriately to protect citizens from the consequences of the nuclear accident. 3,39.Google Scholar, 70. 5, 35-36 (reports to Ukraine CP on rumors about Chernobyl', May 1986). Has data issue: true 1 (January 1988): 32.Google Scholar. 2-4 (KGB report on conditions around ChNPP, April 26,1986). See Obstanovka i meropriiatia po likvidatsii posledstvii avarii na Chernobyl skoi AES po sostoianiiu na 12 iiunia 1986 goda, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. Ibid., 53. P-11-231 1 "Chernobyl" Lessons Learned for Post-Emergency Response VF.Demin1) and B.I.Yatsalo2) 1)RRC "Kurchatov Institute", Moscow 2) Obninsk Institute of Nuclear Power Engineering, Obninsk, Kaluga reg., Russia demin@nsi.kiae.ru; yatsalo@obninsk.ru INTRODUCTION The scale of the Chernobyl accident, non-total readiness in regulation and extraordinary unstable political doubly occupied lands in Eastern Europe. While the USSR's civil defense organization urged prompt and decisive measures to inform the population of the accident and move people out of harm's way, other Soviet institutions, such as the Communist Party and the KGB, feared the accident's threat to their legitimacy more than its implications for public health. com.ua/articles/2011/04/25/36971/ (last accessed November 10, 2014). The Chernobyl safety test has been described as akin to testing an airliners engines during a routine flight, something that should have been absolutely unthinkable. The accident added to the publics distrust of government authorities. 32, spr. Chernobyl contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, and continues to impact on confidence in nuclear energy around the world. 10 (October 2005): 1819.Google Scholar, 15. Valentina Shevchenko, head of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR in 1986, insisted in a 2011 interview that the Kiev May Day parade went ahead at Moscow's insistence. [15] Background RBMK reactors, like those in use at Chernobyl, following an emergency shutdown will continue to emit 7 % of their thermal output and therefore must continue to be cooled. Unfortunately you do not have access to this content, please use the, Hostname: page-component-7fc98996b9-rf4gk Slavic Review is an international interdisciplinary journal devoted to the study of eastern Europe, Russia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, past and present. 2957,11. A paper co-developed by the JRC and published in Nature compares the costs and benefits of flood risk reduction measures in Europe. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl', 400.Google Scholar, 52. Margulis, U. Gorbachev touted the term heavily in his address to the Twenty-Seventh Party Congress, in February 1986, as a critical component of socialist democratism. Bomb Shelters in the USSR, 1945-1962, Grazhdanskaia oborona: Slozhnyi etap razvitiia, Neobkhodimost MPVO-GO: Podtverdilo vremia, Formirovaniia grazhdanskoi oborony v bor'be s stikhiinymi bedstviiami, Russians, Too, Joke Sadly on Atom-War Survival, Plutopia:Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters, When Safe Enough Is Not Good Enough: Organizing Safety at Chernobyl, Likvidatsiia posledstvii radioaktivnogo zarazheniia, Opyt likvidatsii Chernobyl skoi katastrofy, Trevozhnye dni i nochi Chernobylia: Sbornik rasskazov ivospominanii, Chernobyl': Sobytiia i uroki. Feature Flags: { 2997, ark. 30. Again, the circumstances were situation-specific and the Fukushima reactors are not representative of modern reactors. 23, no. To the extent that public and political attitudes towards nuclear energy are affected by perceptions based on Chernobyl and Fukushima, governments must be prepared to carefully and fully explain all the facts, to dispel the belief that nuclear energy is simply too risky to consider. 58. Published online by Cambridge University Press: Dovidka 3-ho Upravlinnia KDB URSR pro nedoliki u roboti shtabiv tsivil noi oborony obiektiv atomnoi energetiki respubliki, Derzhavnyi arkhiv sluzhby bezpeky Ukrainy (DA SBU), f. 65, spr. 40, no. Political Science 1991 THE ACCIDENT at the Chernobyl nuclear power station (NPS) on 26 April 1986 was a disaster of global proportions that has changed the politics of nuclear power in the Soviet Union and abroad. The designers of the RBMK made design compromises that sacrificed safety in order to achieve this lower fuel cost. D'iachenko, , Opyt likvidatsii Chernobyl skoi katastrofy, 3940.Google Scholar, 35. First, the reactors would be brought down to low power, between 700 and 800 megawatts. 2995, listy (11.) Ivanov, Boris, Chernobyl', Voennye znaniia First, there is prevention. 0 moral no-psikhologicheskoi obstanovke v respublike v sviazi s avarii na Chernobyl'skoi AES, Tsentral'nyi derzhavnyi arkhiv hromads'kykh obiednan Ukrainy (TsDAHO), fond (f.) 1, opis (op.) 1 (January 1988): 32.Google Scholar. On Soviet citizens reactions to the address, see Informatsiia ob otklikakh trudiashikhsia Ukrainskoi SSR po vystupleniiu General nogo sekretaria TsK KPSS tovarishcha M. S. Gorbacheva po Tsentral'nomu televideniiu 14 maia 1986 goda, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. Since the early 1950s, some Americans had argued that the USSR possessed a vast, well-resourced civil defense organization that was far more capable than its American counterpart. 63. An ironic example of this appeared in a May 8,1986, circular for party propagandists stating explicitly that the population is being promptly and fully informed about the ongoing work at the power plant and other measures. The circular itself, however, instructs recipients to destroy after reading. Ob avarii na Chernobyl skoi AES i likvidatsii ee posledstvii, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. The meltdown contributed to the Soviet Unions collapse but may have also cost a chance to employ low-carbon energy. Three Mile Island was a, The third major accident was at Fukushima, Japan, in 2011. Baranovs'ka, Nataliia, Chornobyl's'ka trahediia: Narisi z istorii (Kiev, 2011).Google Scholar For an overview of Ukrainian historiography on Chernobyl until 2006, see Update (1935ET): As per The Independent: Authorities in the Ohio town where a train derailed carrying toxic chemicals have scrapped plans for a question-and-answer session (town hall) for residents.. Health concerns are mounting among the citizens of East Palestine amid reports of dead animals and local people falling sick.. 1,32.Google Scholar, 54. Lina Kushnir, Valentina Shevchenko: Provesty demonstratsiiu 1 travnia 1986-ho nakazali z Moskvy, Istorichna pravda, April 25,2011, at www.istpravda. 2-3 (KGB report on conditions around ChNPP, April 26,1986); Povidomlennia KDB URSR do KDB SRSR pro vybukh 4-ho enerhobloka Chornobyl's'koi AES. Burns, John F., Russians, Too, Joke Sadly on Atom-War Survival, New York Times, June 11,1982, A2.Google Scholar, 18. 2337, ark. 22. Political Fallout: The Failure of Emergency Management at Chernobyl Edward Geist Although the building above reactor 4 had exploded at 1:23 a.m. on Satur-day, April 26, 1986, and was clearly burning, the managers of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (ChNPP) assured themselves that both the reactor core and its radiation shielding remained . 4, and several hundred staff and firefighters tackled a blaze that burned for 10 days and sent. Ivanov, , Chernobyl', Voennyeznaniia, no. 2 (February 1988): 23.Google Scholar, 56. Render date: 2023-03-04T05:38:26.289Z D'iachenko, , Opyt likvidatsii Chernobylskoi katastrofy, 39.Google Scholar. The storm flooded New Orleans, killed more than 1,800 people, and caused $100 billion in . More broadly, the Chernobyl accident has had a major impact on public and political attitudes towards the safety of nuclear energy. Cambridge University Press is committed by its charter to disseminate knowledge as widely as possible across the globe. Rossii, MChS TsSI GZ, Grazhdanskaia oborona: Slozhnyi etap razvitiia, Grazhdanskaiazashchita Geist, Edward, Was There a Real Mineshaft Gap'? Potter, William and Kerner, Lucy, The Soviet Military's Performance at Chernobyl, Soviet Studies D'iachenko, A. On the history of Soviet civil defense, see Medvedev, The Truth about Chernobyl, 18587. Known as aptechki individualnye AI-2, these first-aid kits came in bright orange plastic cases and included seven different drugs, including potassium iodide, two antibiotics (tetracycline and sulfanamide), cystamine, nausea-prevention tablets, a single-use syringe of morphine, and tablets of taren, a form of the Soviet drug aprofen included to counteract organophosphate chemical weapons. Furthermore, they state that the maximum radiation in Pripiat was 14 microroentgens an hour on the morning of the 26thwhen in fact there were places in the city where radiation levels were hundreds of times higher. 2 (2006): 4856.Google Scholar, 5. For an account of Soviet propaganda extolling nuclear power, see 25, spr. See 4 led to a nuclear meltdown, followed by a raging fire and steam explosions. 2 (March/April 2011): 1929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. Bomb Shelters in the USSR, 1945-1962, Journal of Cold War Studies Ever since the accident that destroyed unit 4 of the Chernobyl' Nuclear Power Plant on April 26,1986, became public knowledge, the Soviet government's response to this catastrophe has been the subject of bewilderment and withering criticism. Ten years ago this week, Hurricane Katrina made landfall on the Gulf Coast and generated a huge disaster. See Medvedev, , The Legacy of Chernobyl, 49.Google Scholar, 55. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl', 397.Google Scholar, 38. 5, 35-36 (reports to Ukraine CP on rumors about Chernobyl', May 1986). 2997, ark. 6 (1991): 1039.CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 4. 39, no. The abuse potential of the latter two substances (aprofen can induce a hallucinogenic delirium) may have discouraged the Soviet government from issuing the complete kits to citizens following the Chernobyl' accident, and extant accounts suggest that civil defense distributed only the potassium iodide tablets. 64. Its a big challenge to manage the ambition for nuclear-powered subs and still juggle other crucial defence decisions. 23. 2-3 (report to CP Ukraine Central Committee on events at ChNPP, April 1986).